Any words, ideas, or images that you do not create yourself must be properly credited if you use them in your work. Why? Because you are using someone else's intellectual property.
Citing your information sources acknowledges the origin of your information, and it lends credibility to your work by showing evidence of your research. It demonstrates the authenticity of your information and enables your readers to locate your information sources, should they want to.
This includes all types of information sources that you may use, including:
Whenever you use someone else's intellectual or creative "property," you need to provide a proper citation for your source, in order:
A citation is a reference to the source of an idea, information, or image. A citation typically includes enough identifying information, such as the author, title, and publication format, for a reader to be able to access the source.
The ability to interpret citations is a fundamental research skill! To do this you need to evaluate each source to ensure they are:
Can the author be identified?
The authors of books and scholarly journal articles are identified. That may not be true of magazines, newspapers, and Web pages. If the author is unknown, then the credibility of your information source becomes even more important.
Is the author qualified to write on this topic?
Scholarly journals are more authoritative for your academic research purposes than popular magazines because the authors of scholarly journals are academically qualified to write about the topic, while the author of popular journals often summarises the opinions of people about a subject.
Some commercial online databases provide an option to limit search results to only peer-reviewed articles. While this option targets scholarly information sources, it significantly limits search results. (Peer-review is a system through which professionals in the same area as the researcher review his or her work to ensure its quality before the work is published.)
What is the purpose of the information that you have found? Is it to inform or persuade? This is not always easy to determine.
If the purpose is not apparent, consider the following questions:
Another important indicator is the intended audience. If the intended audience is distinguished by persons with a political view or in a certain profession, the content will likely be slanted in the direction of that audience's interests.
Is the information that you have found reliable? How do you know? Use the following checklist to assess the reliability of your information source:
Purpose - Is the purpose of the information to inform, explain, persuade, market a product, or advocate a cause?
Scope - Is the content intended to be a brief overview of the information or an in-depth analysis?
Audience - Is it intended for the public, scholars, practitioners, etc.? Does it meet the needs of its stated audience?
Author - If the author is an individual, what are the author's credentials and affiliation? If the author is an institution, what is its purpose?
Bias - Are there political, ideological, cultural, religious, or institutional biases? Is the information substantiated and documented? Is there a list of references used by the author?
Presentation - Is your information source professionally written? Is it well-organized? Does the conclusion support the thesis?
Date - Is the information source dated? Is it appropriately current for your information need?
Publisher - What is the source of publication? Is it a university press, a government agency, an established publishing house, a special-interest organization, or an individual?
Is the currency or "timeliness" of your information an important consideration? It depends on your information need!
How Current Does Your Information Need to be? |
Information Source (s)* |
Current within the last month? |
• Newspapers - print & online |
Current within the last 3-6 months? |
• Periodicals (weekly, semi-monthly, monthly) - print & online |
Current within the last year? |
• Periodicals (weekly, semi-monthly, monthly) - print & online |
Currency is not essential |
• Books (your richest resource when currency is not a factor) |
Caution: Avoid using any information source that isn't dated, unless the currency is not a consideration and you can assess the reliability of your information source by other means.
When you need information, where do you go? Your choice of an information source will influence the kind of information you retrieve. Consider the specific attributes of information sources before you make your choice!
Information Source |
Primary Attribute |
Advantage |
Disadvantage |
Book (non-fiction) |
Comprehensive | Substantive |
Information may be out of date, depending on the date of the book's publication. |
|
Popular | Focused |
Because of a limited amount of space, coverage is limited to only the most current information. |
|
Scholarly | Authoritative |
Because of a limited amount of space, coverage is limited to only the most current information. |
Newspaper |
Current | Broad in scope |
Non-substantive: Could be opinion-driven. |
World Wide Web (Internet) |
Accessible | Broad in scope |
Unreliable: The source of information needs to be verified. |
Some of the best and most cutting-edge research is published in scholarly journals. Some of the most current and newsworthy information is published in magazines. Journals and magazines are part of a genre of publications that are referred to as "periodicals".
The key is to know when to search for an article, rather than looking for a book or surfing the Web.
The following table identifies some of the characteristics that distinguish journals from magazines. If you are doing academic research and need authoritative information within a discipline, limit your search to journal articles. If you want current, practical information, look for magazine articles.
JOURNALS |
MAGAZINES |
PURPOSE: To contribute to the evolving body of knowledge within an academic discipline. |
PURPOSE: To entertain, to market, to train, and/or to promote a viewpoint. |
Published by university presses, professional associations, or learned societies. |
Published by commercial enterprises. |
Articles authored by scholars or persons who have done substantive research with qualifying academic credentials. |
Articles are written by staff writers and editors. |
Articles are substantive and lengthy. |
Articles are typically brief. |
Always cite information sources and include Works Cited. |
Rarely cite information sources or include a bibliography. |
Uses vocabulary specific to the subject. |
Uses vocabulary and language for a general audience. |
Presumes reader has prior knowledge of the subject. |
Presumes no prior knowledge of the subject. |
It is estimated that less than 15% of the world's information is digitized. The vast majority of the world's information is available in print-only, much of it published in books. While the web may be a great source of current information, books are either the best source and/or the only source of other types of information. The key is to know when to search for a book. Books are the best/only source of information for Background information on all disciplines; History; Law; Philosophy; Science; Technical Manuals.
The World Wide Web is generally accessible, convenient, and frequently fast. It provides a wealth of content, but the content can be uneven and difficult to verify. If you are using the Web as your sole source of information, beware!
The Web may or may not be the BEST information source for your need. How do you know when the Web is a good information choice? Consider the following questions:
Are you sacrificing quality for convenience? If you are, weigh the risks!
Is the information more current than other sources?
Is the information more authoritative than other sources?
Is the information more objective than other sources?
Is the information more reliable than other sources?
Does it provide unique coverage of your topic?
The Web is a self-publishing medium. There is no editorial or quality control over much of the content on the Web. Be a discriminate consumer of "information!"
The purpose of a Web site may be determined by the domain name in its URL, which is an indicator of the sponsoring organization.
.com |
commercial |
The purpose of companies is to promote themselves and sell their products. |
.edu |
education |
The purpose is typically to teach, inform, or present research. |
.gov |
government |
The purpose is generally to inform, to post public documents, including statutory and regulatory codes, and to present research findings or statistics. |
.net |
network |
The purpose is normally to provide Internet service to organizations, both private and commercial, as well as to individuals |
.org |
organization |
The purpose may be to inform or present research, but often it is to advocate for the organization. |