Language Structures And Features

In this section, we will look at how to use language structures and features in ways that help us produce coherent and cohesive texts. We will look at various writing contexts as we do this. We will focus on sentence lengths, types and complexities. We will then move on to look at the use of paragraphs. Finally, we will look at the overall structure of a piece of writing, paying particular attention to the conclusion of a text. In this Section there will be comparatively little theory - you will however be asked to do a fair amount of writing on your own.

Coherent Writing

We know that texts are written in a variety of styles or genres. You have looked at how the purpose, context and audience determine the style of writing chosen. We will now look at some features and structures of language in more detail. Before we do this,, however, we need to be sure that we understand what it means to produce coherent and cohesive texts.

Coherence refers to the quality of being logically consistent; writing to ensure that all the separate parts fit together to form a harmonious and credible whole; e.g. "Even though the arguments were complicated, her written report had a great deal of coherence - it all fitted together very well."

Cohesiveness is similar in meaning - it refers to the quality of sticking, holding, or working together to form a united whole; "The very complex data on HIV/AIDS was presented in such a way that it had a great deal of cohesiveness."

How do you ensure that your writing never lacks coherence? Primarily this relates to how you express your ideas and the links you make between different ideas. Let us look at how you can use a range of sentence types to ensure coherence. Sentences are the basic building blocks of a written text. Sentences, like all aspects of language, have certain features and structures.

What exactly do we mean when we talk about language features and structures? A feature is something that distinguishes one thing from another. It can also refer to the appearance of something; e.g. "A feature of her writing is her use of unusually long sentences."

Structure, as used here, refers to the way in which the different parts of something link or work together; e.g. "He uses very complicated sentence structures; her sentences are very long but are well structured."

Sentences – Lengths, Types and Complexities

As writers, there is a range of ways that we can structure our sentences. Let us look at short simple sentences.

Technically, a simple sentence is one that contains a single verb (or action word). Generally, a simple sentence is relatively short; e.g. "Nelson Mandela is admired worldwide." "He still travels widely.”

The term compound is used to describe two simple sentences that are joined by using a common joining word such as 'but' or 'and'; e.g., "Nelson Mandela is admired worldwide and he still travels widely.” The word complex, which as we know means the opposite of simple, is used to describe longer, more complicated sentences; e.g. "Nelson Mandela, who is still admired worldwide, manages to find time in his busy schedule, to still travel widely."

Paragraphs

We are now going to move on to looking at the use of paragraphs. You have already done a fair amount of work with paragraphs when you did brainstorming, but we will now look at the conventions of paragraph writing. All of the work on paragraphs is done to ensure that your writing shows evidence of cohesion and coherence.

A paragraph is a section of writing; it is a piece of writing that consists of one or more sentences; begins on a new line, and contains a distinct idea or the words of one speaker; e.g. "The essay on substance abuse contained eight distinct paragraphs." Paragraphs are used in order to obtain logical progression through a text. They can also be used to show cause and effect and contrast.

Read through the following extract from a text on Communication Theory. As you read, be aware of where each new paragraph begins.

Perceptual barriers: Perception refers to how we understand or see situations and people as a result of our personal desires, views and values. Perceptual barriers refer to situations in which people don't manage to communicate well as a result of these differences. So when we communicate with one another, we need to keep in mind that perception plays an important part in how the message will be received.

Different people can interpret the same message in different ways. In the work environment, all people do not share the same view and will have different perceptions about how things need to be done. These differences stem from a wide variety of factors, which influence the way we look at and experience life. Some of our perceptions may be sexist, racist or elitist.

For example, the junior assistant might have a very creative idea, which is radically different to what the company has been doing. The manager, who is used to the old way of running the company, might not even pay attention to this idea if the assistant has little experience, is a woman, or has a different cultural background. However, if they share their thoughts and ideas, they might come up with a practical solution, where they combine the idea with the manager's experience to be more effective in their company.

You need to be sensitive, understanding and tolerant when people differ from you. You need to realise that your way of thinking and doing is not necessarily the only way or the best way. You should practise good listening and negotiating skills when dealing with people who have different perceptions.

Can you see how each paragraph contains one single main idea?

• Paragraph 1 defines what is meant by perception;
• Paragraph 2 explains differences in perception;
• Paragraph 3 gives an example of how a barrier to perception might arise;
• Paragraph 4 gives a possible solution to such a barrier; and
• Paragraph 5 gives a brief, general overview of how to avoid barriers to perception.

How can you ensure that when you write texts your paragraphs progress logically and promote coherence and cohesion? We can also use paragraphs to contrast ideas or points.

Look at the following Example.

Let us say you had been asked to write a brief text as a filler for the college magazine on something to do with the contrast in nature.

• You decide to write an article on colours of leaves.
• You choose green and autumnal colours as your examples.
• You write a brief description of these.
• You then contrast each of the types you have chosen.
• Your finished text might look something like this:

Colours are an important part of all of our lives. Imagine how dull it would be to live in a totally grey world, with only different shades to enliven our lives. Different colours are used to represent different moods. Colours abound in nature from the brilliant hues of various flowers to the more subtle shades of leaves of which we will look at two examples.

The first example is the most common leaf colour of green. Of course, we all know that the green in leaves is caused by chlorophyll, which is used by the plant to manufacture carbohydrate sugars from water and carbon dioxide in the process known as photosynthesis. Not all leaves are green; many have additional pigments that produce colours other than green despite the presence of chlorophyll, and some may lack chlorophyll in all or part.

The brilliant autumn colours characteristic of the leaves of many plants result from the presence of accessory leaf pigments that normally assist the plant during photosynthesis by capturing specific wavelengths of sunlight. These pigments, called carotenoids, become visible when the leaf dies in the autumn.

Which is your favourite colour for a leaf? Is it the bright green we associate with summer and spring or the more muted yet still varied colours in autumn? Or does this depend on your mood? Do you sometimes just have days when everything simply seems grey? Hopefully not! Go out there and enjoy our rainbow world! Do you see how each paragraph is used for contrast?

Longer Texts: Introduction and Conclusion

We have looked at writing sentences and paragraphs.

Let’s take the next step and look at how we can put together a whole piece of writing, one that is a number of paragraphs long, to make sure that the whole piece is coherent (acts as a whole) and presents a clear message to the reader.

Read the following text:

“If I had to live my life all over again, I’d try to make more mistakes next time. I’d try not to be so perfect. I’d relax more, I’d exercise more, I’d be sillier than I’ve been on this trip. I’d be crazier and I certainly would be less concerned about hygiene. I’d take more chances, go on more trips, climb more mountains. I’d swim more rivers and watch more sunsets, eat more ice-creams and fewer beans. I’d have more actual troubles and fewer imaginary ones.

You see, I was one of those people who lived sensibly hour after hour and day after day. Oh, that doesn’t mean I didn’t have good moments – but if I had to live it all over again, I’d have more of those moments. I was one of those people who didn’t go anywhere without a raincoat, a toothbrush and a parachute. “

If I had to live it all over again, I'd travel lighter next time.” (written by an 88-year-old man who had just learned that he was about to die).

EXPLANATION:

What is the message that this writer wants to get across?

In looking back on his life, the writer reflects on his attitude to living: what he got wrong and what he should have done instead.

How does he structure his writing to get this message across clearly?

Let’s look at how he organises his ideas, paragraph by paragraph.

He starts with ‘If I had to live my life all over again …’ and so immediately sets up the context: someone who has lived his life, and has some regrets. The next half of that sentence gives the key idea for that paragraph: … I’d try to make more mistakes next time. This is a rather unusual thing to regret, as most people might regret having made so many mistakes. But then he explains why, by a series of examples that show how his caution made him lose out on the enjoyment of life.

The second paragraph explains (using the linking words You see) how his caution inhibited him and prevented him from enjoying life to the full.

The third paragraph is short for emphasis, as it summarises the key idea. Notice that he echoes the opening words of the passage. Why? Because it connects the ending with the beginning and therefore helps to round it off. He uses a figure of speech (‘travel lighter’) to describe an attitude to life and having read the passage we understand what he is referring to.

Now let us look at another example before you go on to write your own conclusion and introduction.

Consider the following article from a community newspaper:

TRACKWAY: 

"Passengers travelling by rail complain that trains are cancelled frequently. According to the management of Trackway, many of these delays are caused by theft of copper wiring along the lines, and that they are doing what they can to prevent this theft.

Travelling on some of Trackway’s lines can present a grave risk to passengers; frequent robberies, attacks and even rapes and stabbings have been reported on trains. In one case, after passengers threatened to sue the company, Trackway increased the number of guards on the worst-affected lines.

Many train coaches are in terrible condition, with torn seating, broken windows and dirty interiors. Trackway has announced that 200 new state-of-the-art coaches have been ordered and will soon be in service."

REFLECT:

What seems wrong with this report?

Each paragraph makes sense in its own right, but the whole article seems to be going nowhere. We may find ourselves asking: what is the point of this article?

To answer this, read the three paragraphs again, looking for a pattern. (Clue: count the sentences, compare paragraphs and see if you can find a common pattern in the sentences). What would you say the point of the article is?

• To describe the habits of train travellers.
• To highlight some of the difficulties of train travel.
• To introduce Trackway to the reader.
• To explain Trackway’s improvements.

Each paragraph has one sentence describing a problem, and one sentence giving Trackway’s comment on how it will improve that problem. But the article does not link these paragraphs in any way.

• What it needs is something to hold it together.
• It needs a more explicit headline - to orientate the reader to the topic
• It needs an introduction – to give the scope of what is coming
• It needs a conclusion - to summarise the point of the article as a whole.
• Compare this with the original article:

TRACKWAY ANSWERS ITS CRITICS

"Recent surveys have shown tremendous public negativity towards Trackway, the company that runs the suburban train services in all the country’s cities. The company has therefore issued a statement defending its efforts to improve services.

Passengers travelling by rail complain that trains are cancelled frequently. According to the management of Trackway, many of these delays are caused by theft of copper wiring along the lines, and that they are doing what they can to prevent this theft.

Travelling on some of Trackway’s lines can present a grave risk to passengers; frequent robberies, attacks and even rapes and stabbings have been reported on trains. In one case, after passengers threatened to sue the company, Trackway increased the number of guards on the worst-affected lines.

Many train coaches are in terrible condition, with torn seating, broken windows and dirty interiors. Trackway has announced that 200 new luxury coaches have been bought and will soon be in service.

Trackway acknowledges that it is facing severe problems, but says it is doing what it can to stay ahead of these problems."

Does this make it more coherent to read?