Author’s Techniques In Terms Of Purpose And Audience

Reaching the right conclusions about the purpose of a text and the type of audience that will read the text mean consideration of the following:

• Information content.
• Tone – formal, persuasive.
• Text type.

Information Content

Business documentation and text books or other documentation will contain information that is factual, possibly containing statistical data. The level of this information would therefore be specialised, written by an expert with applied knowledge such as a technician/engineer/scientist or executive. The language would contain the jargon of that particular field, e.g. legal or scientific.

The articles from a popular magazine, for that matter would contain opinions, beliefs, inferences and persuasion. They would not be technically informative, but rather for the reader’s entertainment.

Tone

The tone in each text will be determined by the writer’s objective; does he want to inform/instruct or does he want to entertain or persuade.

The tone in a magazine is less formal and less technical than that in a text book. Articles would comprise opinions, inferences, and some persuasion, in the form of advertisements.

Text Type

To identify the text type, the reader must ask him/herself the following questions:

• What is the writer trying to tell me?
• Is the writer trying to persuade me?
• Is the writer informing me?
• Lastly, does the writer want to entertain me?

Text books and other business literature consist of information and instruction.

Magazines and novels consist of articles and stories that entertain, with opinions and inferences together with some narrative with suspense or romance.

To determine the purpose of a text and therefore the audience for whom it was it written, we need to go through the text slowly. Take note of any of the ideas and examples or details which may make the writer’s points clearer. Asking yourself questions as you read will help you understand exactly what the writer is saying.

Sentences

Many people feel that only long sentences can convey an impression of dignity and seriousness. This is incorrect as short sentences are equally effective in conveying certainty and control. There is no point in a writer linking unrelated ideas to produce long straggling sentences, as this will only make it harder for the reader to grasp the intended meaning.

Paragraphs

The use of paragraphs not only help the reader follow the writer’s train of thought but also show that the writer has planned the text by ensuring that ideas are grouped under related topics and thus points follow on in a logical order. This technique helps the writer communicate with greater efficiency and precision.

Language

Language is the primary means of communication between human beings, so any exercise in clear writing is an exercise in clear thought. People only speak the same language if they use the same words with the same meaning. Concrete terms such as table, book or dog are easy to use. Using abstract terms could add confusion as they have different meanings for different people.

An important feature of style is the writer’s choice of words. The number and kinds of words used in written or spoken communication are usually referred to as vocabulary. Choosing the right vocabulary for each situation is a complex process and is influenced by many factors. There are some basic principles that the writer should apply in every situation listed below:

Writing the way we speak: When speaking, we all use expressions that are relaxed and informal, for instance, when pausing for breath, we might say, ‘you know what I mean?’ Such an expression may be useful when talking with friends, but in a business situation, is out of place.

Slang: Groups of people often develop an informal style of language which they use among themselves. Slang is often vigorous and forceful as well as inventive but it has significant drawbacks: it is usually only understood by a small group of people and it may not be particularly precise in meaning. For these reasons, it should not be used in more formal communication.

Emotive language can appeal so strongly to the emotions that the basic meaning is obscured. Emotional words prejudice the reader in advance and prevent him/her from reaching impartial conclusions.

Persuasive language as seen in advertisements invites, tempts and in some cases shocks the reader. Advertising combines creative understanding with scientific knowledge of human behaviour and needs. Each advertisement is designed to grab the reader’s attention and sustain the reader’s interest. They also create in the reader a desire for the product advertised and encourage the reader to take action by purchasing the product or service.

At work, if you were writing a report for your manager or employer you would want him/her to react in a specific way, e.g. you may want to convince him/her to give all the employees an increase or spend more money on marketing or advertising, etc. If you were writing the same report for a magazine you would be using the same information however, you would be writing for a different audience and your purpose for writing may be different.

Authors often use the power of suggestion in their texts and if used repeatedly the reader tends to believe the statement. Suggestion can therefore be a sinister and alarming barrier to clear thought.

We all have habits of thought. These are beliefs that we originally accepted without question and that we have continued to hold ever since. Often we call these our convictions, but someone else’s prejudices. Prejudices create obstacles in a person’s mind and limit their thinking process. Although they are often strongly held, these beliefs generally collapse when subjected to logical reasoning.

If an author uses imprecise words, faulty reasoning, padding or jargon, the reader cannot hope to get his/her message.

Let’s consider other techniques a writer might use:

Allusion: an indirect or passing reference to something that the writer or speaker assumes is common knowledge shared by those who are educated. A writer or speaker may allude to myths, the Bible, works of literature, historical facts, movies or well-known speeches.  Writers use allusions to enrich their work. Allusions can function as parodies or can contrast with or complement the writer’s own statements. For example the title “It takes two to Toyi-toyi is an allusion to the well known phrase ‘It takes two to Tango’.

Parody: an imitation of a poem, a piece of prose, a play, a newspaper article etc. with the purpose of poking fun at the original piece of writing. Parodies are always humorous and much of the humour relies on the fact that the reader knows the original and can make a mental comparison between the two.

Figures of Speech: can be divided into two categories; those that make use of comparisons and those that rely on a departure from the literal meaning of the word. Let’s first take a look at those that rely on comparisons:

Simile: A comparison between two things that are essentially dissimilar, but share a common quality, using the word ‘like’ or ‘as’. For example: The girl is as pretty as a butterfly.

Metaphor: A direct comparison between two things that are essentially dissimilar, but share a common quality. Instead of saying one thing is like another or as another, we say one thing is another or has the qualities of another. For example: The girl is an exotic flower.

Personification: A kind of metaphor in which living or human qualities are attributed to an inanimate object. For instance: The wind screamed in agony.

Let’s consider the figures of speech that depart from the literal meaning of the word.

Irony: 

Intentional irony: When a writer deliberately says the opposite of what is meant.

Unintentional irony: When people do not realise that they are contradicting themselves, for example when smokers lash out at companies that pollute the air with noxious fumes.

Hyperbole: Gross exaggeration – such as: I have told you a million times not to…

Euphemism: Using a mild, indirect term instead of a blunt one to describe something unpleasant or sensitive: For example: He passed away, instead of He died.

Paradox: A seemingly contradictory statement which, when inspected closely, is found to contain an important truth. For example: You have to be cruel to be kind.

Satire, anticlimax and innuendo: three other techniques that we must remember. To satirise means to mock or ridicule something in order to communicate a serious underlying message. Innuendo means to imply something without saying it directly. For example: ‘Did you enjoy the book?’ ‘Well, the cover had a nice design.’

Punctuation:

It is important to remember when writing reports, letters or other forms of text that punctuation can change the meaning of a sentence completely. For this reason, and because poor punctuation presents a bad image to your reader, accurate punctuation is essential in many forms of communication.

The Full Stop: Everyone knows that a full stop marks the end of a sentence; but it is often not used where it should be. A very common error is to use a comma in its place, to produce a long, rambling and loosely constructed sentence which the reader has to look at several times before the meaning becomes clear.

The Comma: The comma is used to mark pauses, but only when a pause is needed to clarify the grammatical structure or the meaning of a sentence. There are for main occasions when a comma should be used. They are:

• To separate items in a list.
• Around words or phrases: These are words that describe the subject of the sentence, or which act as an alternative subject, and are added after the main thought.
• Around expressions in parenthesis.
• To separate clauses from a main clause.

The Semi Colon: This is used to joint two clauses which might otherwise be joined by a conjunction – usually “because” or “as”. It can also be used to separate long and complex items in a list.

The Colon: Like the semi-colon, it is used to link two clauses, each of which has a subject and a main verb. The difference between the colon and the semi-colon lies in the relationship between the clauses which they join: the semi-colon joins one clause to another of similar meaning or two clauses in the relation of cause to effect, whereas the colon joins two clauses of opposite meaning. We could think of the semi-colon equalling ‘because’ and the colon equalling ‘but’. Just remember, this is not a hard and fast rule.

Diction: Clarity and crispness of consonants (articulation) or of the words (enunciation) can be improved through reading fun nonsense rhymes and exercises.

Try the following examples. The idea is to say them as quickly as possible and as clearly as possible:

“She sells sea shells on the sea shore” or

“Red lorry, yellow lorry”

The tone and pitch of your voice, the speed at which you speak and your accent could each have an impact on your audience and the message you are sending.

Speaking rapidly or quickly can indicate intelligence or anxiety.

In becoming an effective speaker in the workplace and in social situations every effort should be made to lower the pitch (highness and lowness) and add resonance (vibration or richness) to your voice. Improving the projection (sending power) of your voice is also quite easy and this can be done through breathing correctly.

An accent can be attractive and call attention to a person, provided that the accent is not so heavy that one cannot understand what is being said.

The tone of your voice expresses your intent and the words you use are the content in communicating. Remember, people tend to listen to HOW you say something and not WHAT you say.